Flow interactions and forward flight dynamics of tandem flapping wings

<jats:p>We examine theoretically the flow interactions and forward flight dynamics of tandem or in-line flapping wings. Two wings are driven vertically with prescribed heaving motions, and the horizontal propulsion speeds and positions are dynamically selected through aero- or hydro-dynamic interactions. Our simulations employ an improved vortex-sheet method to solve for the locomotion of the pair within the collective flow field, and we identify ‘schooling states’ in which the wings travel together with nearly constant separation. Multiple terminal configurations are achieved by varying the initial conditions, and the emergent separations are approximately integer multiples of the wavelength traced out by each wing. We explain the stability of these states by perturbing the follower and mapping out an effective potential for its position in the leader’s wake. Each equilibrium position is stabilised since smaller separations are associated with in-phase follower-wake motions that constructively reinforce the flow but lead to decreased thrust on the follower; larger separations are associated with antagonistic follower-wake motions, increased thrust and a weakened collective wake. The equilibria and their stability are also corroborated by a linearised theory for the motion of the leader, the wake it produces and its effect on the follower. We also consider a weakly flapping follower driven with lower heaving amplitude than the leader. We identify ‘keep-up’ conditions for which the wings may still ‘school’ together despite their dissimilar kinematics, with the ‘freeloading’ follower passively assuming a favourable position within the wake that permits it to travel significantly faster than it would in isolation.</jats:p>